If all goes to plan, by 2040 people may be living on the moon in houses made—essentially—from mushrooms. At least, that’s how astrobiologist Dr. Lynn J. Rothschild is picturing it. She imagines domed habitats that could comfortably host three bedrooms, with spectacular views of space beyond their large windows. Under an inflatable shell, they would be made of mycelium, a root-like fungal structure, something of an alternative building material heroine, lauded for its durability; versatility; and water-, mold-, and fire-resistant properties. Here on Earth, it’s been used to make bricks for construction, furniture, and even shoes. “Mycelium has low flammability and great acoustic properties. It can be made so that it is highly insulating,” says Rothschild, who works at NASA’s Ames Research Center in Silicon Valley, California.
Rothschild and her team are just one of several research groups exploring the possibilities of what a moon base might look like: China and Russia are aiming to create a lunar nuclear power plant, Foster + Partners is working with the European Space Agency to 3D-print a lunar habitat, and Japan hopes to establish its own surface colony, to name a few. With all of these projects in the works, it begs the question: Who is actually allowed to start building?
Who can build on the moon?
There’s a reason that Star Trek dubbed outer space “the final frontier.” Establishing settlements on extraterrestrial bodies is a bit like claiming land in the former Wild West—whoever can reach it first can plant their flag, with some limits. The Outer Space Treaty of 1967 and 2020’s Artemis Accords state that no one country can own the moon and set guidelines for lunar conduct. However, individuals can explore, build structures, and mine the moon for its minerals.
To this end, the United States, China, Japan, Russia, and India have all successfully landed lunar rovers, however, the US is the only country to have sent humans to the moon’s surface. All are currently vying for a piece of its real estate: Japanese private space exploration company ispace is aiming to match the US’s 2040 timeline for lunar habitats. However, it is currently stalled by multiple failed missions to land a probe on the moon. Meanwhile, China and Russia are partnering on a project called the International Lunar Research Station that claims construction will begin after 2028. The duo is considering powering it with a nuclear plant. Azerbaijan, Belarus, Egypt, Kazakhstan, Nicaragua, Serbia, Pakistan, Senegal, South Africa, Thailand, and Venezuela have also signed on to the project, though official designs for the station and plant have yet to be released.
How might lunar real estate be divided?
Should several countries be successful in building a moon base, research centers, habitats, or even a power plant on the moon’s surface, each would be operated and occupied by its nation’s astronauts and partners. They would be laid out similar to the way Antarctica’s permanent research stations are plotted across its icy tundra, loosely clustered by global region but more on a first-come, first-flag-planted basis.
To some, that’s concerning. In January, World Monuments Fund (WMF) included the moon on its 2025 World Monuments Watch because of potential for new explorers and exploiters to damage it and its “over 90 historic sites and countless artifacts, including the Apollo 11 lander, Neil Armstrong’s first footprint, and the goodwill messages disc from 72 nations,” describes WMF CEO Bénédicte de Montlaur. “Existing frameworks like the Outer Space Treaty and Artemis Accords acknowledge space heritage but lack enforcement mechanisms,” she says. “International cooperation—modeled after the Antarctic Treaty—could establish binding protections.”
The United States isn’t necessarily focused on founding habitats where historic moon sites or artifacts exist. NASA’s Moon to Mars plan, which aims to establish homes on the surfaces of the moon and Mars (perhaps with the application of Rothschild’s research), is focused on the South Pole. However, that isn’t to say that other astronauts—or even private companies—with the ability to reach the moon wouldn’t potentially damage these important sites.
What would homes actually look like on the moon?
By 2040, NASA aims to have constructed long-term habitats on the lunar surface and will later do the same on Mars. To do so, however, isn’t as simple as blasting traditional framing materials up to space during the next rocket launch. In addition to wanting to avoid steel or wood beams occupying valuable square footage inside spaceships, building on the moon requires specific architecture that can handle its thin, non-breathable atmosphere, which causes extreme temperature fluctuations and offers no protection from radiation nor meteoroid impacts. To that end, some NASA projects explore using the moon’s own surface material to construct our future homes in combination with advanced building technologies currently being perfected here on Earth.
“Earth-based [building] innovations—focused on thermal regulation, resource efficiency, and structural resilience—serve as a foundation for designing lunar habitats that can withstand extreme temperatures, radiation, and micrometeorite impacts, ensuring long-term human survival beyond Earth,” explains Irene Gallou, a senior partner at architecture firm Foster + Partners, which has been working with NASA on designs for lunar and Martian habitats since 2015.
Foster + Partners’s lunar designs, which were on view recently at the Kennedy Center exhibition “Earth to Space: Arts Breaking the Sky,” will “rely on 3D printing, robotic assembly, and leveraging local materials derived from lunar regolith [the moon’s topsoil] to create sustainable, cost-effective habitats,” Gallou says. Similar to 3D-printed homes on Earth, the building process would require that autonomous robotic printers, and perhaps inflatable scaffolding, be delivered to the site before construction can begin. A regolith material mix could take the place of typical concrete or mortar.
Rothschild’s fungal mycelia structures offer an even greener building method, which could eschew the need for large machine deliveries. “On Earth, ‘life’ is a very common building material, from animal skins and bones in very early habitats to the wooden structures of today,” she explains. “There are a lot of great reasons for biological materials—we have chosen one that should be ideal off-planet.”
Adding to the list of benefits, a dark-colored fungi could mean stronger protections from UV rays and solar and galactic radiation. Plus it could be composted when no longer needed. “It also has great biophilic psychological properties,” Rothschild adds, referencing the idea that incorporating nature into the built environment can reduce stress and improve cognitive function for residents, among other benefits.
Where would moon homes be located?
Lunar habitats would likely be located where the moon can offer the best resources. Rothschild’s research, for example, explores the idea that fungus could grow lunar housing on site—just add water. There is evidence of ice in the deep, shadowed craters on the moon’s South Pole—hence, where NASA and China are concentrating current missions—but harnessing it will be difficult.
One solution Rothschild’s team is exploring is pre-growing mycelia with wood chips inside an inflatable structure on Earth, then popping it up after transport to the moon to allow the structure to solidify. “We would hope to use water that is already available on the moon to save mass required to carry water from Earth,” she adds.
Aside from potential water sources, the lunar South Pole is a good location for habitats due to its “near constant illumination, ideal for generating power via solar cells,” Gallou says. Foster + Partners and Branch Technology recently designed and prototyped a 164-foot-tall power-collecting solar tower for NASA, which could generate energy for self-sufficient live-work structures.
Like on Earth, humans in lunar habitats will need the essentials—food, water, and shelter. If the Moon proves it can provide all three, it could become a place that we also call home.